Between the eighth
and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empire staged
an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that is
all the more striking because it followed a
long period of severe internal decline. By the early eighth century, the empire
had lost roughly two-thirds of the territory it had possessed in the year 600,
and its remaining area was being raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to take Constantinople
and extinguish the empire altogether. The wealth of the state and its subjects
was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary production had virtually
ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire had regained almost
half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure, and its influence
extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered, the treasury was
full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the
Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances as differentiated aspects
of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, these three forms of progress
have gone together in a number of states and civilizations. Rome under Augustus
and fifth-century Athens provide the most obvious examples in antiquity.
Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequential connections among military,
economic, and cultural forms of progress might help explain the dynamics of
historical change.
The
common explanation of these apparent connections in the case of Byzantium would
run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids on its own territory
and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantine resources
naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize art and
literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economic
advances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this
hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the course of the recovery. Yet
it is not clear that military advances invariably came first, economic advances
second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860’s the Byzantine Empire
began to recover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with
the Abbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire’s favor. The
beginning of the empire’s economic revival, however, can be placed between 810
and 830. Finally, the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even
earlier. A number of notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the
last decade of the eighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasted
until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order of
military revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery was
reversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itself
have influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion.
Questions:
1. Which
of the following best states the central idea of the passage?
(A) The
Byzantine Empire was a unique case in which the usual order of military and
economic revival preceding cultural revival was reversed.
(B) The
economic, cultural, and military revival in the Byzantine Empire between the
eighth and eleventh centuries was similar in its order to the sequence of
revivals in Augustan Rome and fifth century Athens.
(C) After 810
Byzantine economic recovery spurred a military and, later, cultural expansion
that lasted until 1453.
(D) The
eighth-century revival of Byzantine learning is an inexplicable phenomenon, and
its economic and military precursors have yet to be discovered.
(E) The revival
of the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries shows
cultural rebirth preceding economic and military revival, the reverse of the
commonly accepted order of progress.
2. The
primary purpose of the second paragraph is which of the following?
(A) To
establish the uniqueness of the Byzantine revival
(B) To show
that Augustan Rome and fifth-century Athens are examples of cultural, economic,
and military expansion against which all subsequent cases must be measured
(C) To suggest
that cultural, economic, and military advances have tended to be closely
interrelated in different societies
(D) To argue
that, while the revivals of Augustan Rome and fifth-century Athens were
similar, they are unrelated to other historical examples
(E) To indicate
that, wherever possible, historians should seek to make comparisons with the
earliest chronological examples of revival
3. It
can be inferred from the passage that by the eleventh century the Byzantine
military forces
(A) had reached
their peak and begun to decline
(B) had
eliminated the Bulgarian army
(C) were
comparable in size to the army of Rome under Augustus
(D) were strong
enough to withstand the Abbasid Caliphate’s military forces
(E) had
achieved control of Byzantine governmental structures
4. It
can be inferred from the passage that the Byzantine Empire sustained
significant territorial losses
(A) in 600
(B) during the
seventh century
(C) a century
after the cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire had been lost
(D) soon after
the revival of Byzantine learning
(E) in the
century after 873
5. In
the third paragraph, the author most probably provides an explanation of the
apparent connections among economic, military, and cultural development in
order to
(A) suggest
that the process of revival in Byzantium accords with this model
(B) set up an
order of events that is then shown to be not generally applicable to the case
of Byzantium
(C) cast
aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about Byzantium
(D) suggest
that Byzantium represents a case for which no historical precedent exists
(E) argue that
military conquest is the paramount element in the growth of empires
6. Which
of the following does the author mention as crucial evidence concerning the
manner in which the Byzantine revival began?
(A) The
Byzantine military revival of the 860’s led to economic and cultural advances.
(B) The
Byzantine cultural revival lasted until 1453.
(C) The
Byzantine economic recovery began in the 900’s.
(D) The revival
of Byzantine learning began toward the end of the eighth century.
(E) By the early
eleventh century the Byzantine Empire had regained much of its lost territory.
7. According
to the author, “The common explanation” (line 28) of
connections between economic, military, and cultural development is
(A) revolutionary
and too new to have been applied to the history of the Byzantine Empire
(B) reasonable,
but an antiquated theory of the nature of progress
(C) not
applicable to the Byzantine revival as a whole, but does perhaps accurately
describe limited periods during the revival
(D) equally
applicable to the Byzantine case as a whole and to the history of military,
economic, and cultural advances in ancient Greece and Rome
(E) essentially
not helpful, because military, economic, and cultural advances are part of a
single phenomenon
Answers:
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1.
E
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2.
C
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3.
D
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4.
B
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5.
B
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6.
D
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7.
C
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